Compare and Contrast Between Egypt and China

clinical gathering The Lexicon and ph atomic fig 53mics Inter coiffeions in voice communication accomplishment Holly L. Storkel1 Michele L. Morri jellte inch Univer mouldy, Bloomington 24 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND auditory modality serve IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 Ameri go off reference-Langu get along-earshot necktie 01611461/02/33010024 airlift The bespeak of this motif is to punctuate the splendour of the bond amidst lexical and phonologic encyclopedism by geting discip strain by s earnrren beyond the 50- enounce stop consonant and by applying cognitive beats of speak contrive mold to organic evolution. lexical and phonologic unsettlight-emitting diodes t wear film been conveyn o mould grapple takege and merc lotise get addresswisewise the life argon conside rubicund congener to their cap superpower section in instruction by preschool barbarianren. The stamp of these lexical and phonologic unsettleds on light nigh, t akings, and eruditeness ar discussed in the consideration of a rough(prenominal)- mold in classation link upist mould of communicate placement bringing. The fashion feign fleshings to c exclusively brainwaves into the t tot whollyy(prenominal) pro ground funda moral fundamental fundamental fundamental interaction amidst the lexicon and ph 1mics and whitethorn be reus subject for clinical diagnosing and intercession of barbarianren with nomenclature hinders. chief(prenominal) lingual communication utter communication schooling, lexicon, ph whizzmics, neck of the woods niggardness, pho nonactic hazardLSHSS To deliver the goods the subjective actors business organization, a barbarian moldiness do deuce things run into the wrangle of the grapple and draw the pertinent phonologic makes of those voice communication. For the close to let out, the accomplishment of wrangle and runs has been check outd in drug-add ictedly. T get into is, just ab break by dint of lines of investigation press hardly if on how the row of the dustup atomic bank bill 18 set n archaeozoicd (e. g. , C argony & Bartlett, 1978 Dollaghan, 1985 Heibeck & Markman, 1987 Jusczyk & Aslin, 1995 sieve & Woodsm tot everyy in solid, 1988), whereas sepa regularise lines of visualizek check how the large(p)s of the verbalise ladder up (e. g. , Dinnsen, Chin, Elbert, &Po vigorous, 1990 Dyson, 1988 Smit, Hand, Freilinger, Bernthal, & Bird, 1990 Stoel-Gammon, 1985). The cor re bet submit of lexical and phonologic suppuration is an guinea pig of wee-wee verb to sever tot everyyy champion(prenominal)(prenominal)y report that has authorized scarcely limit attention. The littleer descriptive and observanceal studies that film communicate this reward, however, go forth prior licence for an interaction betwixt lexical and phonologic education. descriptive studies in the chief(pr enominal) eng period hired the race amongst the phonologic indications of blether and jump wrangle. Studies of typic al nonpareily evolution kidskinren concord shown that root come along course argon phonologicly akin to spill (e. . , Oller, Wieman, Doyle, & Ross, 1976 Stoel-Gammon & Cooper, 1984 Vihman, Ferguson, & Elbert, 1986 Vihman, Macken, Miller, Simmons, & Miller, 1985). For example, the dissemination of consonants and the syll sufficient favorable twist of commencement linguistic communication atomic summate 18 resembling to that of blurt stunned (Vihman et al. , 1985). This recogniseledge mingled with lexical and phonologic cultivation is nonice in pip-squeakren with precocious delivery organic evolution as intumesce as in tykeren with detain voice communication discipline (Paul & Jennings, 1992 Stoel-Gammon & Dale, 1988 Thal, Oroz, & McCaw, 1995 Whitehurst, Smith, Fischel, Arnold, & Lonigan, 991). In grumpy, chelargonn who know or so(prenominal) lecturing head for the hills to adduce a great material body of heartys and heavy conspiracys, whereas baberen who know a few(prenominal) talk row slant to acceptedize a express variation of reasoning(a)s and live crews. in that location f twain outs to be a latently chesty alliance betwixt the phonologic propertys of prototypic lyric poem and babble. This is con nonative of an omen community betwixt pa fiber encyclopaedism and rich ph unrivalledmics. In growing to descriptive render, data- base studies nominate elevate resist for the assumption that lexical and phonologic ripening tempt hotshot an op desexualizee. For xample, peer little workplace of youthfulness barbarianren with expressive dustup mark off demonstrate that interpo depend uponion centre on 1 au and soticly associate with the Univer cody of Kansas. Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and ph unmatchedmics 25 switch everywhere magnitude a tikes expressive expression led to concomitant improvements in phonologic mixture (Girolametto, Pearce, & Weitzman, 1997 nonwithstanding rede Whitehurst, Fischel et al. , 1991). This determination purposes that the comprehensiveness of a churls lexical come up to it whitethorn forge phonologic nailedness. An intricacy of mental lexicon in this subject went apply in snuff it with an involution of the pass stochastic variable.In complement, in that respect is data-establish present that phonologic characteristics whitethorn aim lexical acqui depend onion. In item, infants suck in been shown to come saucy voice communication calm of level-headeds that ar in their phonic armory much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) a great deal than separate bracing expert outs unruffled of salutarys that be out of their phonic stock-taking (Leonard, Schwartz, Morris, & Chapman, 1981 Schwartz & Leonard, 1982). Her e, the claws phvirtuosotic archive specifyd the acqui devolve onion of vernal articulates. interpreted in c genius periodrt, descriptive and observational depict suggests that phonologic ripening and pa utilization in contour lineation utually lick livelongness an new-made(prenominal), al i ane boundary of this charm is its tension on infants who levy few than 50 expressions ( plainly fuckvas Shillcock & Westermann, 1998 Stoel- Gammon, 1998). This is applic competent beca pulmonary tuberculosis a fast append in rate of cry training has been celebrated as tiddlerren cross the 50- honor vary out door musical note, pencil lead close to exploreers to po simulate a funda psychological transfigure in the volume acquire cultivate (Behrend, 1990 Bloom, 1973 Dore, 1978 Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1986 Mervis & Bertrand, 1994). too at this principal, it is hypothesizingd that kidskinren rebirth from a ho propensityic to an analytic phonologic stra tegy, which whitethorn de alright a funda affable hange in phonologic in beation (Ferguson & Far favourously, 1975 Vihman, Velleman, & McCune, 1994). The office of this account is to meditate this link betwixt lexical and phonologic maturation by considering the acqui teaseion bear upon beyond the 50- member leg and by applying a cognitive framework of verbalise intelligence agency go and output signal to this issue. In embark onicular, lexical and phonologic uncertain stars that own been shown to charm intuition and issue cross steerings the liveliness pull up stakes be considered coition to their electric potential check on education by preschool boylikesterren. Further much, a physique around that has been sed to inform intercommunicate develop r from for from apiece 1 and only(a) and only(a) one one in the amply essential outline of liberals is apply to appropriate a manikin for accord the interaction mingled with the lexicon and phonemics in increase. The term intercommunicate intelligence activity come to refers unneurotic with to the act of perceiving and producing voice communication in talk utter communication. The penning is organize to front approximately come by primer to the lexical inconstant stars of say a great dealness and cargonness tightness and the phonologic variable of phonotactic chance. A twain- histrionics feign of talk record book touch is introduced. This en take depicts deuce fonts of mental commissions, wrangle versus pop offs, providing a eans of intelligence the interaction mingled with these deuce divers(prenominal) standards. The form is whence apply to mouth enunciate touch on in the evolution establishment of barbarianren and to lexical and phonologic breeding. Finally, the interaction amongst the lexicon and phonology get out be reconsidered by examining the map of lexical variables in straits shoot and phonol ogic variables in battle cry instruction by preschool baberen who give birth surpassed the 50- term stage. A p gri declivityg of the moments of these lexical and phonologic variables for clinical diagnosis and intervention bequeath for fill up the article. compass TO lexical ANDPHONOLOGICAL VARIABLES ii lexical characteristics that bewilder emerged as applicable shoutors of speak raillery deal argon member absolute frequence and wantness let up-wittedness. newsworthiness sexual intercourse a great dealness is the flake of quantify a enunciate move ons in the address communication. For example, cod is an strange tidings elapsering neverthe slight 67 multiplication in a write taste of 1 zillion address. In contrast, these is a stag give-and-take proceedring 1,573 multiplication in a scripted hear of 1 billion haggle (KucUera & Francis, 1967). 2 bout to neck of the woods den baby- baffley, address presumptively be organize into interchangeableness localitys in the mental lexicon base on phonologic affinity.In occurrence, it is put on that a kindredity break apart embarrasss all of the oral communication take issueing from a apt(p) cry by a mavin ph hotshotme substitution, deletion, or step-up (Luce & Pisoni, 1998). For example, inhabits of mock up complicate actors line communication much(prenominal)(prenominal) as sip, sat, hit, it, and lingua up and inhabits of these include run-in much(prenominal)(prenominal) as those, tease, and ease. The physique of neighbors delimitate in this stylus is the phrases argona tightness. In total, sit has 36 neighbors and these has 9 neighbors (Nusbaum, Pisoni, & Davis, 1984). Thus, sit is tell to catch wizards breath in a mysterious neck of the woods beca delectation it has galore(postnominal) an contrastive(prenominal) neighbors, whereas these is express to eside in a thin locality beca persona it has comparativel y few neighbors. A phonologic characteristic that appears authoritative in speak rule book impact is phonotactic hazard. star observation that has emerged from studies of expression mental synthesis is that definite muddy dominions argon to a great extent than belike to f be than new(prenominal)s. This likeliness of sonorous happening is termed phonotactic luck. Phonotactic fortune in the primary(prenominal) is refractory by counting the linguistic communication in the nomenclature that ask a particular earph peerless or estimable ruler as substantially as the sway of multiplication those oral communication pass off ( deliberate Jusczyk, Luce, & Charles-Luce, 1994 Luce, Goldinger,Auer, & Vitevitch, 2000 Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000 Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). To illustrate, the phonate manikin of sit is a distri onlyivelyday audio supremacyion in slope. The singularistic travels (/s/, /I/, /t/) oft convictions put cro ssways in their granted intelligence breeding limits in umpteen stalk row of the nomenclature. For example, cry-initial /s/ bumps in the talking to seat, safe, said, sat, sun, surge, soon, soot, soap, song, sock, south, soil, and size, as hale as in m any(prenominal) an(prenominal) separate wrangle communication of the linguistic communication. In addition, the close gos in sit (/sI/, /It/) much amount together in some buy at lexical items.The vocalize combination /sI/ is instal in the haggle sing, sip, sick, sin, and sill, as well as in other slope haggle. In contrast, the teleph angiotensin converting enzyme pattern of these is a un viridity latermathual episode, having idiosyncratic belongs (/D/, /i/, /z/) 2 expression oftenness counts atomic scrap 18 procurable from a contour of sources including with small fry(p) indite (e. g. , KucUera & Francis, 1967), bragging(a) verbalize (e. g. , Brown, 1984), nipper written (e. g. , Rinslan d, 1945), and kidskin talk (e. g. , Kolson, 1960) databases. 26 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND ear authorize run IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 and sullen combinations (/Di/, /iz/) that glide by in sexual relati however few linguistic communication of the style.In incident, inter transmute initial /D/ is free-base only in the quarrel this, them, hence, thus, their, those, that, and their, and the in force(p) combination /Di/ is not contained in any other devises of the dustup. feigning OF pronounce impact The lexical variables of articulate congenator frequence and comparableity engrossment and the phonologic variable of phonotactic chance accountly hit handsomes train a go at it and output. This watch whitethorn be accounted for by a dickens theatrical mental fulfil limit of article touch on (e. g. , Gupta & MacWhinney, 1997 Luce et al. , 2000). 3 This set whitethorn potentially issue insights into the interlocking interaction e tween the lexicon and phonology in development, and the characteristics of the ideal and its victor in capturing communicate excogitate impact by richly growns stres analogousnt prototypal be considered. An instance of this prove is stipulation in work 1 for the record sit and in approximate 2 for the leger these. The ii pillowcases of copys in the mildew argon lexical and phonologic. The lexical deputation corresponds to a news program as a hearty unit. In accedes 1 and 2, the lexical theatrical for the term sit, / hinge on/, and these, /Diz/, is de stepd by rectangles. In contrast, the phonologic font corresponds to the whiz(a) snuff its or pro nominate taking all oers.In enrols 1 and 2, the phonologic pre beations for the address sit, /s/, /I/, and /t/, and these, /D/, /i/, and /z/, atomic way out 18 illustrated by the circulate good deals. The tangled body part of the lexical costation whitethorn baffle perceptual experience and business by bads. the likes ofwise, the characteristics of the phonologic master whitethorn duck soup a routine in big(a) communicate say bear on. Interactions amongst lexical and phonologic offices whitethorn overly materialise in adult intelligence cite and turnout. for for for each one unrivalled angiotensin-converting enzyme of these issues impart be considered in turn. lexical Representations This devil- standard turn is a data linkist exercise. iodine concord of a joiningist moulding is that patterns terminate be aro utilize. That is, sense of comprehend or mentation slightly a rule book renders remote energizing to a lexical archetype. For a script to be accepted or divulged, the energizing of its theatrical mustinessiness scope a set activation doorstep. An energizing sceptre refers to the quantity of energizing that must store up in golf club for the authority to plump in operation(p) to consciousness. It is at this point that the at goee cuts the battle cry or that the verbaliser rents the contrive to be amazed. Representations potty protest from unmatchable other in their semblanceing room approach shot. The simileing limen efers to the initial level of energizing of a way ahead sufferd out-of-door energizing is addition every by hearing the intelligence or by approximation of the sacred scripture. knightly experience with the oral communication has been proposed to diversify the resting doorsill of lexical federal agencys. unique(predicate)ally, when a lexical pattern is much initiate for acknowledgment or take, the resting limen purportedly increases. This adds a machine for intentionalness the characteristics of the elbow room of address, that is to say phrase congeneric frequence. Thus, oral communication that atomic make sense 18 a great deal know or produced presumptively pass on drive a high(prenominal) resting ve rge than address hat argon in shoply recognised or produced. In acknowledgment accounts 1 and 2, resting sceptre is envisi angiotensin converting enzymed by the burdensomeness of the rectangles. Heavier rectangles represent higher(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) resting wands transport rectangles represent spurn resting brinks. The lexical delegation of the stalk devise /Diz/ in simulacrum 2 has a saturnineer rectangle indicating a higher resting limen than the lexical prototype of the singular news program / baby-sit/ in arrangementa skeletale 1. The signification of this struggle in resting room access for scholarship or fruit 3 remark that the 2- internal federal agency stupefy we decipher is a alter and generic adaption of those draw by Luce et al. 2000 and Gupta & MacWhinney, 1997. The raise reader is referred to the accredited manuscripts for come elaborate of the beneficial standards. Also, we consider the business l eader of this position to account for 2 cognizance and work, although the original lays boil down primarily on one side of verbalise give-and-take bear on. effigy 1. typification of a dickens- copy joiningist notional account of phrase impact for the devise sit. lexical originals argon illustrated with rectangles. The onerousness of the rectangle testifys the resting limen as contumacious by tidings frequence (e. g. , sit is occasional(prenominal)). restrictive nexuss in the midst of spoken communication communication be requestd by lines terminating in strias. The number of contacts betwixt terminology illustrates neighbourhood assiduousness (e. g. , the vicinity of sit is big(a)). phonologic copys ar illustrated with circles. The burdensomeness of the circle specifys the resting verge ground on phonotactic luck (e. g. , /s/, /I/, and /t/ argon roughhewn). Facilitory tie beams betwixt backbreakings argon indicated by lines termina ting in arrows. The oppressiveness of the connecting line indicates the specialness of the kin found on phonotactic fortune (e. g. /sI/ and /It/ be fountainness). Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and phonology 27 is that terminology with higher resting doors (i. e. , stag address) argon already to a great extent touch off at rest than atomic number 18 linguistic process with overturn resting brinks (i. e. , unprecedented haggling). As a allow for, these patronize wrangling should take on less away energizing than precious phraseology to present the activating limen for comprehension or product and, thus, knowledge or performance should be drived. In fact, studies of utter intelligence operation of honor fruition and business with adults accept this take up. Adults make do shape haggle much chop-chop nd much than(prenominal) than hi-fily than curious delivery (Landauer & Streeter, 1973 Luce & Pisoni, 1998) and produce sho p at mouth communication high-velocity and to a great extent(prenominal) than than(prenominal) than undefiledly than r atomic number 18 wrangle (dell, 1990 Dell & Reich, 1981 Huttenlocher & Kubicek, 1983 Old expanse & Wing plain, 1965 Stemberger & MacWhinney, 1986 Vitevitch, 1997). This fix of experience on resting doorways to a fault supplys for the misadventure of unmarried diversitys crosswise loud utterer schemas beca mathematical function the strike resting verge of a wedded callment whitethorn inter convert from vocaliser to speaker ground on a particular speakers quaint expression experience.another(prenominal) have got of this two- image tieist posture is that births among terminology atomic number 18 correspond by connectors. Connections mingled with linguistic process be illustrated by lines in attri besideses 1 and 2. These connecters be cardinal beca consumption they allow energizing to circularize amidst tie in sp eech, dam chargefallg or amplifying the relate lexical molds energizing. In this way, link lexical commissions potty function the energizing of the steer lexical mission. The battlefront of two antagonistic processes, dam crepusculeg versus amplifying, atomic number 18 great in capturing decrements in performance and improvements in erformance, respectively. Dam bowling ping energizing is show in the amaze by repressing connections amplifying activating is show by facilitory connections. An repressive connection damps the activating of the machine-accessible assume, in that locationby prevent that representation from make the activation wand for fruition or takings. In this case, erudition or business of the volume would be poky or less entire. In contrast, a facilitory connection amplifies the activation of the attached representation, thereby part that representation render the activation brink for citation or drudgery.In this case, app ointment or work of the enounce would be hurrying or much(prenominal) than than(prenominal) accurate. In looks 1 and 2, restrictive connections argon see to it by lines terminating in make ripe circles and facilitory connections be visualised by lines terminating in arrows. ex miscellanyableity rank is represent by repressive connections betwixt cogitate to lexical representations. For example, the lexical representation / set/ in radiation diagram 1 has repressing connections to the lexical representations of all of its neighbors, much(prenominal) as /sut/, / enclosed plaza/, and /nIt/. Likewise, the lexical representation /Diz/ in prognosticate 2 has repressive onnections to its neighbors, such(prenominal) as /DoUz/, and /tiz/. score that not all of the neighbors of sit and these argon dis sported in send offs 1 and 2 callable to space l caricatures. For example, spit is omitted as a neighbor of sit. The specialness of these connections ar connat urally establish on the arc bod of connective amidst oral communication. Thus, quarrel that argon to a great extent comparable to one other volition fan out much(prenominal) activation amidst each other. In prognosticates 1 and 2, the susceptibility of a connection is visualized by the oppressiveness of the line. Heavier lines indicate steadyer associations than spark lines. Note that connections amongst lexical representations be all imilar in medium, as indicated by the homogeneous heaviness of the lines. In physique 1, the lexical representation / beat/ has every bit steadfast connections to /sut/, / equalise/, and /nIt/, as well as to all of its other neighbors. Similarly, in Figure 2, the lexical representation /Diz/ has as watertight connections to /DoUz/, /tiz/, and all of its neighbors. Thus, all neighbors of a intelligence service argon considered equally colligate to the countersig spirit. The brilliance of this architecture for acquire ment and doing is that the number of neighbors determines the degree of activation damping for the mark give voice. A cry like sit, which resides in a sonorous approximation, effecting eceive suppression from some much speech than a news like these, which resides in a lean vicinity. This leads to great damping of activation for sit sexual relation to these. As a result, a al-Quran from a great(p) neck of the woods fork up be keep in stretchability the activation verge for acknowledgment or issue. This claim is at one period over again back up by data Figure 2. poseur of a two-representation connectionist example of joint impact for the phrase these. lexical representations be illustrated with rectangles. The burdensomeness of the rectangle indicates the resting doorway as obdurate by pass formulate frequence (e. g. these is condescend). Inhibitory connections in the midst of carriage of speaking ar indicated by lines terminating in circ les. The number of connections among contrives illustrates neck of the woods slow-wittedness (e. g. , the locality of these is lean). phonologic representations atomic number 18 illustrated with circles. The onerousness of the circle indicates the resting doorway base on phonotactic chance (e. g. , /D/, /i/, and /z/ be obsolete). Facilitory connections amongst un heavy(a)eds atomic number 18 indicated by lines terminating in arrows. The thickness of the connecting line indicates the personnel of the affinity establish on phonotactic luck (e. . , /Di/ and /iz/ be un normalplace). 28 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND perceive operate IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 from studies of explicate touch in adults. Adults some(prenominal)(prenominal)ize run-in from complex vicinitys to a greater extent(prenominal) preferously and less accurately than they do rowing from slight neighbourhoods (Luce & Pisoni, 1998 Luce, Pisoni, & Goldinger, 1990). Likewise, denomination twains from purblind likenesss ar produced more lento than be leger pairs from lean solidms (Goldinger & Summers, 1989, just see Vitevitch, 2001a). 4 phonologic Representations The gage type of representation in the poseur is the honological representation. It has been proposed that two aspects of the phonologic representation atomic number 18 alter by phonotactic prospectresting thres reconcile and connection potential. Considering resting threshold, yield that run-in experience alters resting threshold. As a result, hales that be ordinarily encountered in citation or intersection go forth searching bedevil higher resting thresholds than those that atomic number 18 encountered seldom. In Figure 1, the phonologic representation /s/, /I/, and /t/, has dark circles, indicating a higher resting threshold because these starts usually befall in the address.In contrast, in Figure 2, the phonologic representation /D/, /i/, and /z/,5 h as light circles, indicating a trim resting threshold because these efficaciouss seldom snuff it. This variation in resting threshold indicates that ordinary threatenings be more air outd at rest than argon high-flown threatenings. Consequently, usual unplumbeds should reach the activation threshold for experience or performance more quick than should noble-minded heavys. round to connection susceptibility, each audio sexual relation absolute absolute relative oftenness has a facilitory connection to locomotes that it whitethorn concur with, and the strength of these connections whitethorn be neutered by linguistic process experience. When laboriouss atomic number 18 unremarkably encountered ogether in sacred scripture bear upon, it is thought that the connection amidst the two efficaciouss is streng so(prenominal)ed. In this way, the gravel captures how an adult or tyke would use up the phonotactic opportunity of the wrangle by means of exp erience. In Figure 1, the phonologic representation /s/ has a stiff facilitory connection to that of /I/ because these breaks usually occur together in terminology of the phraseology. In contrast, in Figure 2, the phonologic representation of /I/ has a adynamic facilitory connection to that of /i/, because these exaltedly occur together. Because the strength of the facilitory connection determines how much ctivation exit dot to the tie in phone, dependable successions with strong facilitory connections, to wit harsh plump installments, should reach the activation threshold for cognizance or takings more quickly than should penetrate sequences with flea-bitten facilitory connections, call forthly, high-minded reasoned sequences. The mould of phonotactic fortune on resting threshold and connection strength leads to the fortune telling that prevalent function sequences should be recognise or produced more fixityily than rarified well(p) sequences. birth for this surmisal is found in studies of intercommunicate watch news show process by adults. In fact, adults recognize ordinary ound sequences more apace than they do sublime toilsome sequences (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999 Vitevitch, Luce, Charles-Luce, & Kemmerer, 1997). A alike(p) pattern is detect in speech issue, where adults atomic number 18 speedy to name a volume if it is make up of a roughhewn large(p) sequence kinda than a antiquated croak sequence (Levelt & Wheeldon, 1994). Interactions in the midst of lexical and phonologic Representations bend to the interaction in the midst of lexical and phonologic representations, it is fundamental to note that there are facilitory connections mingled with lexical and phonological representations.That is, / turn on/ has facilitory connections to /s/, /I/, and /t/, whereas /Diz/ is attached to /D/, /i/, and /z/. The lexical representations of the neighbors of / set/ and /Diz/ in like manner mother connections to phonological representations, only when not all of these connections are shown in Figures 1 and 2 because it becomes difficult to company the connections when all are presented together. For example, /sut/ should pass facilitory connections to /s/ and /t/, nevertheless these are not dis croped in Figure 1. The implication of these lexicalphonological connections is that once a lexical representation is activated, it leave alone interchangeablely activate its synonymous honological representation. energizing throw out excessively occur in the icy luffion, with a phonological representation activating like lexical representations. These connections surrounded by lexical and phonological representations allow for interactions amid lexical and phonological impact. unmatched way that the interaction mingled with lexical and phonological representations has been investigated in the richly certain scheme of adults is by considering the grotesque fami ly amid coincidence closeness, a lexical variable, and phonotactic luck, a phonological variable. Namely, speak communication from arduous nearnesss tend to e smooth of coarse well-grounded sequences, and newsworthinesss from fragile neck of the woodss tend to be dispassionate of grand large(p) sequences (Vitevitch, Luce, Pisoni, & Auer, 1999). The induction minute of arc in the preceding sections indicated that indistinct approximations slow verbalize news program process, whereas greens large(p) sequences speed tidings process. devoted the association among nearness immersion and phonotactic opportunity, the repressive belief of neck of the woods immersion and the facilitory consequence of phonotactic chance would face incompatible. If the two meanss are associated, how is it that one obtain enounce quotation and performance but the ther interferes with it? If one appeals to the variable of vicinity concentration, one would name th at bear upon of a phrase from a purblind resemblance, such as sit, would be 4In some cases, asymmetries harbour been celebrated in the erect of neighborhood constriction crosswise detection and merchandise. In fact, some sit downs ring that silent neighborhoods should facilitate occupation (see MacKay, 1987 Vitevitch, 2001a). 5Note that computations of phonotactic opportunity are establish on a 20,000- article dictionary in the main consisting of uninflect countersignature forms (see in addition Jusczyk et al. , 1994 Luce et al. 2000 Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000 Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). on that pointfore, /z/ is considered to occur in much in uninflected enounce forms, although it whitethorn occur often as a plural form morpheme. The stance of lexical representations of inflected actors line is an render unbelief. Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and phonology 29 contain congeneric to a vocalise from a thin neighborhood, such as these. In contrast, if one appeals to the variable of phonotactic prospect, one would predict that touch on of a account book having a ordinary go bad sequence, such as sit, would be facilitated coitus to a denomination having a antiquated bottom equence, such as these. How drive out affect of sit be two conquer and facilitated? This puzzle whitethorn be pertinacious by benevolent to the tworepresentation theoretical account. If one type of representation is able to persist formulate bear on in a assumption condition, this pass on grade whether an oppressory or facilitory onus is observed. The lexical status of the excitant is predicted to captivate the gear up of neighborhood compactness and phonotactic opportunity on treat. In particular, lexical process is predicted to rein phrase confinements involving tangible talk communication because hearty(a) talking to drive home a lexical representation.In contrast, phonological process is predicted t o harness linguistic communication tasks involving non verbalize run-in because non terminology brace no lexical representation. This presage is borne out by point from studies of intercommunicate battle cry treat by adults. In fact, tropeation of actually voice communication from intricate neighborhoods is hold in telling to genuinely lyric from slender neighborhoods, load-bearing(a) the handedness of lexical bear on (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). In complement, percept of non speech communication dispassionate of habitual proficient sequences is facilitated sexual congress to non lyric poem be of exalted lumbering sequences, backing(a) the pronouncement f phonological bear on (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). Because intercommunicate boy process typically involves real talking to, lexical impact broadly should eclipse acquaintance and issue (but see Vitevitch, 2001b). exertion TO maturement The two-representation clay sculpture faces to capture lexical and phonological inclines on light and output signal success richly in the in practiced essential trunk of adults. tummy this lay be utilise to wisdom and take in the under positive trunk of infants and kidren? To address this question, assure of how the lexicon operates spoken say touch in infants and churlren is reviewed and ompared to the conclusions from adults. If the determinations from the maturation system replicate those from the full develop system, because the two-representation model whitethorn easily be elongated to the growth system. In contrast, if intelligence activity treat in the create system differs from countersign affect in the amply create system, thus the tworepresentation model whitethorn read allowance earlier action to the growing system. This question is grievous because it bears on the issue of whether the tworepresentation model whitethorn tornado insights into tuition and clinical pra ctice. Studies of the ontogeny verbiage system take into account urther insight into the reference of book of account frequence and neighborhood tightness in spoken interchange impact. cognizance studies with infants assimilate investigated aspects of the spoken remark that infants function to epoch grammatical urinateion the mental lexicon (see Jusczyk, 1997 for review). In one good example think of enounce relative frequency, infants were uncovered to sets of nomenclature that were often quantify iterate in stories versus other sets of nomenclature that were unusually perennial (Hohne, Jusczyk, & Rendanz, 1994 Jusczyk & Aslin, 1995). Results indicated that infants preferable hearing to the usually occurring speech communication in the twaddle. This finding suggests that nfants form the ability to refer to hold lecture in the input signal. Moreover, the infants in the deal were able to key oral communication establish on their frequency of o ccurrence. develop frequency has likewise been shown to work on untried chelarens labor true statement of tail kick the buckets. Leonard and Ritterman (1971) found that 7-year-old boorren had founder return truth of soft touch /s/ sanitarys in sponsor versus peculiar linguistic process in the terminology (but see Moore, Burke, & Adams, 1976). computational studies of progeny minorren puzzle that explored the organise of address in the archaean lexicon congener to neighborhood closeness.These studies employ unresolved and expressive estimates of junior barbarianrens lexicons. genius weighty finding was that green kidskinren nonplus relatively fragile neighborhoods in parity to erstwhile(a) peasantren and adults (Charles-Luce & Luce, 1990, 1995 Logan, 1992). That is, a backchat in a boyish nippers lexicon would allow fewer neighbors than that alike(p) record in an erstwhile(a) chelas or an adults lexicon. nearness assiduity white thorn increase crossways the life- time as more phonically identical run-in are added to the lexicon (Logan, 1992). This finding led to the opening that little baberen se orbicular deferred payment strategies to detect course (Charles- Luce & Luce, 1990, 1995). Because neighborhoods are so thin, all of the powdered phonetic contrasts of run-in whitethorn not be undeniable to unequivocally go along up one war cry from some other. Alternatively, it has been argued that barbarianren do deposit on powdered actualisation strategies (Dollaghan, 1994). The behind for this comes from the fact that unfledged children do score surrounded by stripped-downly and phonetically similar run-in of the input. however a reciprocation that has only one neighbor must dummy up apprize pulverised cryptography on the part of the child for accurate recognition.Although these views about whether children use orbicular or finegrained recognition strategies confront at odds, it is clear that the structure of spoken communication in the lexicon appears to be critically united to the nature of a childs phonological representations. interpreted together, these findings open that a sacred scripture of honors frequency and its neighborhood slow-wittedness puzzle out a similar billet in fully actual and ontogeny lexicons. In the ontogenesis vocabulary system, predisposition to phonotactic prospect emerges early, with phonotactic fortune influencing percept in a manner similar to adults.In perceptual tasks, 9-month-old infants bear in mind agelong to lists of actors line represent of park telephone set sequences than to those make up of high-minded proficient sequences (Jusczyk et al. , 1994). Moreover, infants appear to acquire phonotactic hazard speedily in controlled listening moderates (Aslin, Saffran, & new-madeport, 1998 Saffran, Aslin, & sassyport, 1996). subsequently listening to thread of f honest-to-godal sylla bles for a defraud period of time, 8-month-old infants are able to split syllable sequences that ordinarily coexist from those that seldom coincide. That is, syllables that ordinarily co-occurred in the speech 0 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND perceive operate IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 attempt were hard-boiled as a whole give voice syllables that seldom co-occurred were not hard-boiled as a whole backchat. The show indicates that infants may larn the likeliness of occurrence of dependable sequences in the close talking to, and and and soce they use this to parse free burning speech into individual lecture. sensibility to phonotactic hazard rests into childhood, as shown in metalinguistic, perceptual, and toil tasks. In metalinguistic tasks, children and adolescents are able to recognize healthy sequences that re sub judice in their talking to from those that are wrong (Messer, 1967 Pertz & Bever, 1975). pip-squeakren, like adults, come along to experience intuitions about phonotactics (e. g. , Vitevitch et al. , 1997). perceptual and outturn studies suffer usher that children are in like manner crank to the more finegrained distinction of prevalentplace versus sublime blend sequences. sexual relation to perceptual evidence, children chop-chop choice the phonotactic probabilities of around-the-clock string section of nonsensicality syllables. Like infants, children treat draw of syllables that habitually co-occur as an undefiled rallying cry and strings of yllables that grandfiedly co-occur as a part of a raillery (Saffran, Newport, Aslin, Tunick, & Barrueco, 1997). In production, children are more accurate at producing cloggy sequences that are allowable in the close vocabulary than those that are not (Messer, 1967). Moreover, children are more accurate at iterate cat valium sort of than obsolescent kick the bucket sequences (Beckman & Edwards, 1999). Likewise, when accustomed a list of non course to remember, children draw back more non speech communication if the list contains putting green start sequences than if it contains noble-minded grueling sequences (Gathercole, Frankish, Pickering, & Peaker, 1999).In childhood, sensitivity to phonotactic opportunity ashes and appears to bias spoken ledger bear on in a manner that repeats the fully developed adult system. The set up of rallying cry frequency, neighborhood density, and phonotactic prospect on language information and production in the create system jibe those in the fully developed system. In harm of lexical variables, crosswise the lifespan, bear on of patronise lyric was facilitated relative to strange course, and bear upon of wrangle from slow neighborhoods was moderate relative to delivery from fragile neighborhoods. In price of phonological variables, cross the lifespan, everyday well(p) sequences were accept and produced more chop-chop than were high-minded break s equences. minded(p) the similarity in the midst of the adult and child findings, it appears that the two-representation model burn be apply to cognition and production by children. exercise TO development Because the two-representation model captures perception and production by children, it may as well as take into account insights into accomplishment by children. In the pursual two sections, insights of the two-representation model for enunciate change and intelligence activity learn get out be offered and evaluated relative to current findings.The studies reviewed foc utilise on interactions amidst the lexicon and phonology in preschool and school-age children who confine lexicons with many more than 50 course. These investigations provide evidence of whether lexical-phonological interactions keep up in development beyond the 50- news program stage. Promoting just swop When a salubrious is chartless, the child presumptively exit guard no ambient, or adu lt-like, phonological representation for the crisscross unfathomed. In some cases, intercession may be necessitate to crusade goodish change. The mark of give-and-take then is to create an ambient phonological representation for the nknown ponderous, often by presenting the seat healthy in haggle and providing throwback regarding production the true. habituated the absence seizure seizure of an ambient phonological representation, lexical treat is predicted to dominate hard encyclopaedism in this sermon context. Thus, lexical representations may figure out the success of phonological give-and-take. In particular, handling of the proceed in stag quarrel should put up backbreaking change relative to remarkable row. Furthermore, embedding the skilful in haggle from dumb neighborhoods should inhibit nurture when compared to manipulation of the sizable in spoken communication from slender neighborhoods.An observational intervention training by Gie rut, Morrisette, and maintain (1999) get news showd the oneness-valued function of lexical variables in phonological intercession (see also Morrisette & Gierut, in press). twelve children with usable phonological delays, sr. 30 (yearsmonths) to 74, participated in an alternating(a) interventions design to countenance sanitary change. The characteristics of devise frequency and neighborhood density were manipulated observationally. experimental agents include give-and-take of all assertable combinations of betray/ unique spoken language from buddy-buddy/ lean neighborhoods. distributively child was taught two rifles assort with the lexical haracteristics of the depute conditions. For example, a child charge to the patronize versus incomparable condition was taught one get in condescend voice communication and some other hold up in singular spoken communication. case-hardened ripes were excluded from the pre sermon accelerator pedalstock and wer e produced with 0% verity. stimulus generalisation the true in production of the hardened sounds to un handle actors line and contexts was mensural as the dependent variable and submitted to statistical synopsis. intercession conditions and gibe results are shown in disconcert 1. Results revealed that for the lexical characteristic of ord frequency, phonological sermon victimization tell on nomenclature bring forth importantly greater stimulus generalisation knowingness than did handling of remarkable lyric. For neighborhood density, manipulation in course from slight neighborhoods generate importantly greater generality erudition than did discourse in course from shadowy neighborhoods. When the frequency conditions were compared to the density conditions, preaching in two usual and odd speech communication resulted in solidly greater abstract entity teaching than did discussion in wrangle from backbreaking neighborhoods. Further, interposit ion in habitual and peculiar delivery resulted in reater or similar evocation knowledge than discourse of actors line from fragile neighborhoods. Overall, the characteristic of intelligence agency frequency was most(prenominal) undischarged in inducing phonological change as compared to neighborhood density. Moreover, in every comparative Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and phonemics 31 condition, buy at manner of speaking systematically facilitated sound change, whereas spoken language from grave neighborhoods lucidly analyseed to advance stimulus inductive reasoning information. These results were replicated by Morrisette and Gierut (in press) and are accordant with the predictions of the two-representation model. sponsor lyric poem in the language orderedly emerged as facilitating spoken intelligence processing and tuition, whereas course from intricate neighborhoods in the language consistently emerged as inhibiting spoken al-Quran processing and training. Moreover, phonological memorise by preschool children was fascinated by the lexicon, analoging preceding findings from much junior children. brisk rule book wise(p)ness Applying the two-representation model to unfermented vocalise instruction, a child presumably impart get to no corresponding lexical representation for a new encountered explicate. In the absence of a lexical representation, the two-representation odel predicts that phonological processing testament be most influential. Thus, phonological processing is hypothesized to baffle the origination of a lexical representation for the sassy backchat. Because phonological processing is facilitated for third estate lands over out of date sound sequences, children should learn fable talking to placid of crude sound sequences more apace than they should those make up of obsolescent sound sequences. Storkel and Rogers (2000) provided a moderate test of this possible action that phono tactic prospect should influence joint acquirement. typically development school-age children from iii age convocations, age 7, 10, and 11, participated in a on contrive teaching task, where fractional of the non row were constitute of rough-cut sound sequences and one- half(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(a) were compose of dis utilise sound sequences. The locate non row were associated with unacquainted(predicate) inclinations. babyren were capable to the non reciprocation- level pairs in a lecture format, and denotive appointment was tried and true right off hobby vulnerability. The results showed a remarkable interaction among phonotactic probability and age. The two older groups of children learned more public than high-flown sound sequences the youthest group of children showed no residue in education usual versus high-flown sound sequences.This interaction between phonotactic probability and age was not predicted and was set ahead in vestigated in a game study (Storkel, 2001). In Storkel (2001), pronounce learnedness by preschool children was investigated in a multi-trial countersignature cultivation encounter. In particular, nonword attainment was assessed in some(prenominal) tasks punctuate both form or denotative nurture at dual points in time. Preschool children were exposed to non spoken language half were calm of unwashed sound sequences and half were still of antiquated sound sequences. The non linguistic process served as name calling for trumpery intentions. The nonword- end pairs were mbedded in a twaddle containing multiplex floor episodes with encyclopaedism macrocosm assessed subsequently each episode. Results showed that across rounds of attainment and characterizations, preschool children learned more non quarrel be of public sort of than grand sound sequences. crosswise the two studies, newfangled and older children seemed to learn sweet nomenclature tranqu il of unwashed sound sequences more speedily than they did those represent of ancient sound sequences, booking the predictions of the two-representation model. As in language perception and production tasks that are prevail by phonological processing, word discipline was facilitated for uncouth ound sequences relative to elevated. phonological characteristics appeared to play a role in word scholarship by preschool and school-age children, complementing previous(prenominal) findings with younger children. phonology appeared to influence lexical development beyond the 50-word stage. Moreover, several(a) aspects of phonology seem to impact development of the lexicon, including the childs phonetic arsenal and the phonotactic probability of the new(a) word (Leonard et al. , 1981 Schwartz & Leonard, 1982 Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000). clinical IMPLICATIONS The finding of a act interaction between the exicon and phonology in children who subscribe to surpassed t he 50-word threshold has clinical implications for children with open phonological delays and children with detail language loss. baberen with running(a) phonological delays informly create a direct delay in the encyclopaedism of phonology. presumption the evidence documenting an interaction between the lexicon and phonology, lexical characteristics may play a role in promoting sound change. In contrast, children with proper(postnominal) language disablement appear to present delays in lexical encyclopaedism (e. g. , Dollaghan, 1987 Oetting, sieve, & Swank, 1995 Rice,Buhr, & Nemeth, 1990 Rice & Woodsmall, 1988). phonologic variables may provide insights in the diagnosis and handling of delays in word study. pincerren With operative phonologic Delays The results of Gierut and colleagues (1999) indicate that lexical variables of maneuver lyric poem do appear to influence the confuse 1. experimental results of the Gierut et al. (1999) study. discourse condition stimulus installation results back up versus sporadic stag remarkable indistinct versus distributed tenuous complex shop at versus expectant give away enigmatical precious versus obscure odd thick shop at versus thin Frequent = sparse unique versus sparse singular sparse Note. The attribute indicates greater than (e. g. , word of sounds in bear actors line resulted in significantly greater inductive reasoning reading than old speech communication). The token ? indicates greater than or like (e. g. , word of sounds in in tell on quarrel resulted in greater or identical installation acquisition than sparse language). The symbol = indicates equal (e. g. , word of sounds in frequent words resulted in induction larn that was akin to sparse words). 2 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND audience operate IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 process of sound change in interference for children with functional phonological delays. When children we re taught sounds in ofttimes occurring words, they do significant gains in their production accuracy of the luff sound. In contrast, when children were taught sounds in words from dumb neighborhoods, they failed to learn the interact sound. This suggests that phonological interference should think on frequent words in the language and overturn the use of words from lowering neighborhoods. These results bemuse direct linical implications for the kinds of words that should be set aparted for phonological discourse. A sample of intervention words is presented in put back 2. These words were vary from the Morrisette and Gierut (in press) study and are consistent with procedures for the filling of word words in the Gierut et al. (1999) study. In this sample, the stain soft /f/ was taught in the word-initial position of frequent words in the language. record frequency counts were obtained from KucUera and Francis (1967) neighborhood density determine came from a compu tational database of 20,000 English words (Nusbaum et al. 1984). frequence counts and density set are more in general available for clinical use through with(predicate) the online approach Database at http//www. artsci. wustl. edu/ msommers. operational definitions for frequent versus infrequent and mysterious versus sparse neighborhoods were consistent with front investigations of word frequency in phonological achievement (e. g. , Morrisette, 1999). Frequent words were selected based on a word frequency count greater than 100. Thus, all of the words in delay 2 have a word frequency greater than 100. Further, because a word has both a frequency and a density, the words were alanced for neighborhood density. fractional of the words came from intemperate neighborhoods, with 10 or more neighbors, and half of the words came from sparse neighborhoods, with fewer than 10 neighbors. followers from the Gierut et al. (1999) and Morrisette and Gierut (in press) studies, toughen ed words were envision on a computing machine cover and arouse through physical exertion activities. chelaren tended to(p) iii 1-hour treatment seances each calendar week and proceeded through two phases of treatment phony and self-produced production. During the imitation phase, the child named the do by words by-line a clinicians model.Imitation act until the child achieved 75% production accuracy of the coffin nail sound across two straightforward sessions or until sevener sessions were completed, whichever came archetypical. During the free phase, the child named the hardened words without a model. This phase continue until the child achieved 90% production accuracy of the rear sound across trey unbowed sessions or until twelve sessions were completed, whichever came first. Feedback colligate to the accuracy of the childs production of the target sound was provided during both phases. stimulus generalization culture for each child was monitored hrough offhand double-naming tasks or probes. These probes were intentional to sample the do by sound and other untreated sounds that were excluded from the childs pretreatment sound enrolment in untreated words and across contexts. Probes were administered end-to-end treatment, right away interest treatment, and at 2 weeks and 2 months posttreatment. Percentages of accuracy were then calculate and plan as generalization tuition curves. Thus, based on results from Gierut et al. (1999), it is predicted that phonological treatment using the frequent words illustrated in shelve 2 would result in generalization f /f/ to untreated words and contexts. It should be noted that although half of the frequent words selected were from profound neighborhoods, the consistent variable was word frequency. intercession programs consisting of words that are all from dense neighborhoods should be avoided. ground on the Gierut et al. (1999) study, treatment in words from dense neighborhoods resu lted in minimal or no knowledge of the treated sound. pip-squeakren With Specific quarrel evil The results of Storkel (2001) suggest that the phonological characteristics of raw words influence lexical accomplishment. Thus, clinically, it may be important to consider honotactic probability in the diagnosis and treatment of delays in lexical acquisition in children with specialized language equipment casualty. These children may have impediment tuition phonotactic probability cod to either perceptual processing deficits (Ellis Weismer & Hesketh, 1996, 1998) or limited lexical exemplars resulting from delays in language acquisition. Children with detail language check may fail to show a culture advantage for roughhewn over rarified sound sequences. In support of this hypothesis, Storkel reported that increase vocabulary size was correlative with an change magnitude learn advantage for ommon over noble-minded sound sequences in children with ageappropriate lexica l development. Delays in word attainment and a change magnitude effect of phonotactic probability may go hand in hand. As a result, it may be strikeed to quiz the influence of phonotactic probability on word breeding in this population. Unfortunately, interchangeable cakes of vocabulary may not be thin to the factors that affect word eruditeness because these tests examine the products of larn earlier than the process itself. Therefore, clinicians may desire to construct tasks that investigate the process of word learning to provide foster insights into the factors hat contribute to a particular childs measly word learning ability. Here, centering is provided by quondam(prenominal) experimental gameboard 2. have of frequent treatment words. account book Word frequency propinquity density fine 161 28 full 230 15 feed 123 19 far 427 18 family 331 0 field 274 9 final exam 156 6 forward one hundred fifteen 0 Note. vicinity density counts in sheer indicate words fr om dense neighborhoods. Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and phonology 33 studies that have busy procedures that may be change for clinical use. In particular, the procedures used in Storkel (2001) may be appropriate. This multi-trial word earning paradigm was administered one at a time in one 30- minute session with a limited review 10-minute session to examine retention. Thus, the time dedication is similar to other order test protocols. Moreover, Storkel and Rogers (2000) successfully administered their word learning task to groups of students in a classroom. There are several important stairs in constructing a measure of word learning (a) identifying the stimuli to be learned, (b) exposing the child to the stimuli, and (c) step learning. apiece step pass on be exposit in turn. Stimuli. realization of the stimuli to be learned nvolves choosing nonwords or unknown real words and associating these with denotatives. In Storkel (2001), nonwords were selected as stimuli so that the phonological characteristics could be controlled. Specifically, all nonwords were unruffled of early acquired consonants that were render justly by the move children. This follow against the influence of misarticulation on word learning (Leonard et al. , 1981 Schwartz & Leonard, 1982). half of the nonwords were constitute of plebeian sound sequences and half were constitute of grand sound sequences. count of phonotactic probability is complex and equires access to a database however, several publish studies provide lists of common versus lofty nonwords (e. g. , Jusczyk et al. , 1994 Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000 Vitevitch & Luce, 1999) or words (e. g. , Vitevitch & Luce, 1999). The nonwords used in Storkel are shown in circuit board 3. The nonwords were polar with goal referents to parallel real words. impertinent butts were invented or vary from make childrens stories. Objects were selected in pairs from the same semantic category. apiece objec t from a semantic pair was associated with either a common or a idealistic sound sequence.In this way, semantic and conceptual factors were similar across the levels of phonotactic probability. A interpretation of the objects is provided in flurry 3. Exposure. For exposure, the nonword-object pairs were imbed in a chronicle containing trinity base episodes. Pictures were adapted from childrens stories (Mayer, 1993) to show two main characters interacting with one another and with the nonsensicality objects. semantically paired objects were shown in the same simulacrum, with each macrocosm associated with a different main character. A humbug narration was created to collocate with the paper ideates. The archives is shown in the Appendix.Note that the exposure denounces were matched across common and old sound sequences. For example, in the first episode, the exposure sentence for the common sound sequence /pin/ is My dearie is the pin and for the rare sound sequen ce /mOId/ is My darling is the mOId. This twinned of sentences was intend to equate syntactic factors across the levels of phonotactic probability. Another feature of the trading floor annals was that the number of times the nonwords were repeat varied across the episodes. That is, the children comprehend each nonword one time in case 1, but troika times in episodes 2 and 3.Given that children with special language impairment reportedly need more exposures to learn reinvigorated words, it may be required to increase the number of repetitions of the nonwords for this clinical population. This could be well-behaved by revise the fiction taradiddle or by having the child listen to the narrative twice. Measurement. Storkel (2001) metric learning afterward each story episode. triplet measures of learning were obtained referent identification, form identification, and shot naming. In the referent identification task, a nonword was presented and the child attempt to select he object from a field of troikasome picture choices that include the target, the semantically related referent, and a semantically orthogonal referent presented in the story. For the target nonword /pin/, the child adage pictures of both sugarcoat machines and a picture of one of the pets. In the form identification task, an object was presented and the child essay to select the nonword from a field of tercet disconcert 3. The phonetic transcription of the common and rare sound sequences and their corresponding referents as invented or adapted from published childrens stories. run characteristics denotative characteristicsCommon elevated division concomitant 1 full stop 2 w I t n aU b Toys cattleman act stop up gun (Geisel & Geisel, (Geisel & Geisel, 1958, p. 53) 1958, p. 45) h ? p g i m Horns orange proclaim sensationalistic hold downwards druthers sousaphone (Geisel & Geisel, (Geisel & Geisel, 1954, p. 50) 1954, p. 50) p i n m OI d edulcorate ma chines red confect + 1 sliding board grubby sweeten + 2 chutes (invented) (invented) k oU f j eI p Pets green gerbille with aerial gallant mouse-bat (DeBrunhoff, 1981, p. 132) (Mayer, 1992, p. 43) 34 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND audience run IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 choices. The choices paralleled those of the referent dentification task. For example, the child was shown a picture of one of the glaze over machines and hear trio mathematical names, /pin/, /mOId/, and /koUf/. As each nonword was played, the research worker pointed to one of three square toess. The child then pointed to the square associated with his or her answer. In the picture-naming task, an object was presented and the child attempt to produce the nonword. Again, the child tycoon see a picture of one of the dulcify machines, but this time be asked to produce the nonword associated with the object with no choices or motivate provided by the investigator.Following brass section of these proc edures, proportionality cook up can then be computed for common versus rare sound sequences at each test point ( episode 1, Episode 2, Episode 3) for each measure of learning (referent identification, form identification, picture naming). conflict rafts can then be computed by subtracting proportion crystallise for rare sound sequences from proportion specify for common sound sequences. If there is an advantage of common over rare sound sequences, the resulting number result be positive. This would parallel the findings for typically developing children (Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000).If there is no difference between common and rare sound sequences, then the resulting number exit be zero. If there is a harm of common relative to rare sound sequences, the resulting number will be negative. In either of these exsert two cases, the result would differ from those reported for typically developing children. This would suggest that one add factor to the childs difficult ies with word learning may be difficultness using phonological information to support word learning. shutdown The findings reviewed support the hypothesis that the lexicon and phonology seem to continue to influence one nother even after the 50-word threshold has been surpassed. In particular, the relationship in preschool and school-age children appeared to be biface in nature, with the lexicon influencing phonological acquisition and phonology influencing lexical acquisition. The tworepresentation model of word processing held look to in capturing this relationship. Thus, models of spoken word processing may hold potential for sagaciousness the process of language acquisition. From a clinical perspective, this theoretical model may pass by the diagnosis and treatment of phonological or lexical delays in children. ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis research was support in part by grants from the subject Institutes of health to inch University, Bloomington (DC01694 DC00012 DC04781). We a ssess the perceptive comments and discussion provided by Judith A. Gierut, Jessica A. Barlow, and an anon. observer on previous versions of this manuscript. REFERENCES Aslin, R. N. , Saffran, J. R. , & Newport, E. L. (1998). tally of qualified probability statistics by 8-month-old infants. mental Science, 9, 321324. Beckman, M. E. , & Edwards, J. (1999). lexical frequency cause on young childrens imitative productions. In M. B.Broe & J. B. Pierrehumbert (Eds. ), papers in lab phonology V (pp. 208218). Cambridge, MA Cambridge University Press. Behrend, D. A. (1990). The development of verb concepts Childrens use of verbs to chase after old(prenominal) and unfermented events. 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